Vedic and Pur

• The vast Vedic literature can be analyzed on its own terms by considering its
• various layers. The Vedic books, such as the Sam. hit as and the Br ahman.
• as (in particular, the Aitareya and the Satapatha), mention names of kings in an incidental fashion. But they do at times provide the genealogies of r.s.is. The Vedic books have been preserved with astonishing accuracy and a tradition has preserved the names of the authors of hymns or verses when a hymn has multiple authors. But not all the famous kings of the R.
• gvedic age are lauded in the hymns.

On the other hand, the bards (s utas) of the Pur an. as and the epics have
preserved genealogies of kings and other people. \As seen by good people in
the ancient times, the s uta's duty was to preserve the genealogies of gods,r.s.
is and glorious kings and the traditions of great men." (V ayu P. 1. 31-2)
According to the epics and the Pur an. as (e.g. Mah abh arata 1.63.2417, V ayu
P. 60. 11-12) the arranger of the Vedas was Par a sara's son Kr.s.n.a Dvaip  ayana Vy asa who lived at the time of the Bh arata battle. The most famous historical event mentioned in the R. gveda is \the Battle of the Ten Kings", (da sar aj~na), mentioned in four hymns of the seventh book of the R.gveda (18, 19, 33, 83). The battle took place between Sud as, the Tr.tsu king, and a confederacy of ten people that include Pakthas, Bh al anas, Alinas, Sivas, and Vis. an. ins. One of the hymns of the R. gveda (10.98) is, according to the indices, composed by Dev api, and this hymn mentions Santanu, Bh s.ma's father.

This appears to be the youngest hymn in the R. gveda, and thus the reference is supportive of the Indian tradition. The Yajurveda does not mention anyone later than Dhr.tar as.t. ra, and the Atharvaveda mentions a Par ks.it ruling over the Kurus. There is no mention in the Vedic Sam. hit as of any of the Pur an. ic kings who came much after the Bh arata battle.
.
Although the Pur an. as have su ered extensive revisions, the core Pur an. a
can be dated to Vedic times. Atharvaveda 11.7.24 mentions Pur an. a along
with the three other Vedas. Satapatha Br ahman.
a 11.5.6.8 refers speci cally to the itih asa-pur an. a and 13.4.3.13 refers to the recitation of the Pur an. a. There is a similar reference in the Ch andogya Upanis.ad 3.4.1.

According to the Vis.n.u Pur an. a, the original Pur an. a was transmitted to
Romahars.an.a byVy asa. Romahars.an. a taught it to his six disciples, including his son Ugra sravas. At that time the Pur an. a consisted of 4,000 verses. The oldest three Pur an. as|the V ayu, the Matsya, and the Brahm an.d.
a|are supposed to have been narrated in the reign of Adhis makr.s.n.a, the great-great grandson of Par ks.it. The V ayu Pur an. a was rst narrated to a gathering of r.s. is, performing their twelve-year sacri ce in the Naimis.a forest on the banks of the river Dr.s. advat .

A Pur an. a is supposed to have ve distinguishing marks: sarga (primary
creation of the universe), pratisarga (secondary creation), vam. sa (genealogy), manvantar an. i (the reigns of Manus in di erent yugas), and vam. s anucarita (history). Within this framework, the bards have found t to add new episodes, but king lists have always remained an important component of
the books. Over the centuries, the Pur an. as have become enlarged with additional material and reworking of old material. The Vis.n. u Pur an.a gives
genealogies of the various dynasties of which that of the Aiks. v akus is the
most complete, giving ninety-three generations from the mythical Manu to
Br.hadbala of the Bh arata battle. The dynasty of the P urus is assigned ftythree
generations for the same period. Clearly, the lists are not complete,
and in fact the Pur an. ic tradition itself claims that the lists are incomplete
(e.g. Matsya Pur an. a 49.72). This is true even of the Iks. v aku line, which
is the longest (e.g. V ayu Pur an. a 88.213). It appears therefore that some
other system of reckoning must have also been used, because we nd it is
still possible to obtain a consistent list by the use of internal synchronisms
and through cross-validation with independent sources.

The Vedic genealogies of r.s. is can be found in the Satapatha Br ahman. a
(10.6.5.9) and Br. had aran. yaka Upanis. ad (2.6; 4.6; 6.5), but such lists are
not characteristic of the Vedic books. However, the Anukraman. s provide
invaluable references to the composers of the hymns. The Vedic books do
not present history in any systematic fashion. Nevertheless, the isolated
references to kings and r.s. is can be compared usefully with the independent
references in the Pur an. as to obtain a chronological framework for the events
of the Vedic era. The famous kings of the epics and the Pur an. as were M andh atr., Hari scandra, Sagara, Bhag ratha, Da saratha, and R ama of Ayodhya; Sa sabindu and Arjuna K artav rya of the Y adavas; Dus.yanta, Bharata, Ajam d. ha, Kuru and Santanu of the Pauravas; Jahnu and G adhi of K anyakubja; Divod asa and Pratardana of K a s ; Vasu Caidya of Cedi and Magadha; Marutta Av ks.ita and Tr.n. abindu of the Vai s ala kingdom; and U s nara and Sivi of the Anavas. Of those that are mentioned in the R. gveda are Bharata (RV 6.14.4), Santanu (RV 10.98.1), Ajam d.ha (RV 4.44.6), M andh atr. (RV 1.112.13, 8.39.8, 8.40.12) and R ama (RV 10.93.14). FurthermoreR.
gveda 10.34 is attributed toM andh atr., 10.179.1 is attributed to Sivi, and 10.179.2 is attributed to Pratardana. Of the kings lauded in theR. gveda, Vadhrya sva, Divod asa, Sr.~njaya, Sud as, Sahadeva and Somaka appear as kings in the North Pa~nc ala genealogy, but there is no description of their exploits. On the other hand, other R. gvedic kings such as Abhy avartin C ayama na, S rutarvan A rks.a, Pla yogi A san_ ga and Svanaya Bh avya are unknown in the epics and the Pur an. as. That Sud as, the most famous king of the R .gveda, should just be a name in the Pur an. as can be explained in two ways. First, this king lived long before the compilation of the genealogies and second, the focus of his exploits was far from the region where the Pur an. ic genealogies were organized. The Pur an. as themselves claim that the s utas were originally from the eastern regions of Magadha and An upa, and this was far from the locale of the Sud as battle in north Punjab .

The Pur an. ic genealogies all begin with the mythical Manu Vaivasvata. He
had several o spring of whom his daughter Il a bore a son named Pur uravas
Aila; their further successors represent the Aila or Lunar branch of the Vedic
people. Manu's chief son Iks. v aku became the king of Madhyade sa with the capital at Ayodhy a. The Aiks. v akus are the Solar dynasty. Amongst the Ailas, Pur uravas was succeeded by Ayu; he in turn was succeeded by the famous king Nahus.a, whose son and successor was Yay ati. The kingdom expanded a great deal during his reign, and Yay ati divided up this state amongst his sons Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu, and P uru.

Indian Family Value System

Values can be defined as certain attitudes and beliefs that a person follows in his conduct. Those standards as per which an individual judges his own actions, whether he is right or wrong can be called as values. Value system comprises of all those beliefs and viewpoints that the parents pass on their next generation, they further pass it on to their offspring and so, the legacy goes on and on. Now let us come to the 'Indian Family Value System' - what is it and how does it influence individuals. In the Indian culture, there are certain rules and regulations that each and every child is taught right from his childhood.

Examples of Indian family values are - a young person should always touch the feet of his elders; he should never speak in a high or rude tone to those who are older to him; he should always give respect to elders and refer to them as 'aap'; he should not consume alcohol and tobacco or smoke cigarettes; he should respect women; he should always speak truth and try to engage in non-violent behavior; and so on. Most of the values that the parents impart to their children in India, as a part of the family value system, are similar in nature. 


However, there may be some variations too, depending upon different families. For instance, in some houses, girls are not allowed top wear skirts after they reach certain age, while in others, they can wear anything, as long as it is decent and not body-revealing. Even these variations are quite trivial, as the basic essence behind them remains, more or les, the same. Most of the values that the Indian parents believe in imparting to their children do not appeal to the outside world. But then, it is these beliefs that make India the wonderful country that it is today.


Some other values that are part of India's cultural heritage are:
Living peacefully and respecting each other's rights.
Never ever compromising on integrity for the purpose of prosperity.
Maintain strong bonds with the family members as well as relatives.
Being hospitable to everyone who comes to your home, irrespective of his caste, creed, financial position or status.
Treating guest as God i.e. 'Atithi Devo Bhava'.
Remembering and bowing to God first thing in the morning.
Indulging in yoga and meditation.
Always taking the advice of elders in case of any important decision.

Kajal

In India, Kajal is a form of eye makeup, which has been in vogue since the ancient times. It's the womenfolk of India who mostly apply kohl to darken their lower eyelid. However, it is also applied in case of children's and earlier, even the Indian men used to wear kajal. Kajal accrues the word Kohl, which is also at times spelt as Kol, Kehal or Kohal. Traditionally, it was prepared at home by females, as protection against eye ailments.

However, today, it is easily available in almost all the shops. Infact, the concept of applying Kajal has become more of a fashion trend in urban India in the recent times. Those people who prepare Kajal at home make it out of soot and other ingredients. In old times, people believed that kajal or Kohl provided relief from the sun's glare. Another perception pertaining Kajal was that it wards off bad luck or vibes.


As such, many women even today apply the Kajal as a small dot on the forehead of their toddlers as well as in their eyes. It is also applied at the nape of a child's neck, where it is not visible. Some people believe this will strengthen the child's eyesight. Applying Kajal is a strong tradition practiced by inhabitants of almost all the regions in India.


Method of preparing Kajal at home
Kajal preparation begins with dipping a clean, white, thin muslin cloth about four by four inches square in a sandalwood paste. The cloth is then dried in shade. After the sun is down, a wick is made out of the cloth and then used to light a mud lamp filled with castor oil. A brass vessel is positioned over the fire, leaving enough gap for the oxygen to aid the burning of the lamp. This is left burning overnight. Next morning, one or two drops of pure ghee or castor oil is added to the soot on the brass vessel and stored it in a clean dry box

Holy Bathing

Indians are very religious and God fearing people. As such, in the normal day-to-day life, you will find many people engaging themselves in some or other religious acts, like visiting the temple, watering the holy Tulsi plant, feeding the cow, etc. Apart from upholding the Indian tradition, other reasons behind their passionate devoutness could be selfless love or fear of God or a mix of both. While there are varied religious activities which Indians observe, perhaps the one considered most sacred is bathing in the waters of holy rivers.

There are many sacred rivers in India, like the Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, and so on. But the one considered the holiest is the Ganga, personified as a Goddess in the Indian mythology. The river is also mentioned in the Rig Veda, one of the earliest Hindu scriptures. According to Hindu beliefs, a holy dip in the Ganges on certain festivals, by any person, will lead to the forgiveness of all his/her sins and also help in attaining salvation. Many others believe that taking a holy dip in the sacred waters of Ganga, anytime, will have the same effect. 

As such, Indians - old and young, come to participate or bathe in the sacred rivers during certain holy bathing festivals like the Kumbh Mela and Chhat Puja. Often, people also immerse the ashes of their kin in the Ganga waters so that their soul may rest peacefully in heaven. Apart from these spiritual baths, many also carry the water of the sacred rivers home, in copper pots, as it is considered to be very auspicious. Those on the verge of dying are usually given drops of this holy water to drink in order to free them of all their sins. 

Any talk of holy or spiritual bathing in India will remain incomplete without the mention of the Kumbh Mela. It is a Hindu bathing festival or pilgrimage which occurs once in every 12 years at four fixed located in India - Prayag (Allahabad), Haridwar, Ujjain and Nashik and is attended by millions of people on a single day. Said to have been initiated by King Harshvardhana of Ujjain, the precise dates of the Kumbh Mela are astronomically determined, based upon precise calculations of the positions of the Sun, the Moon and Jupiter

Sindoor

Traditional authentic Kumkum of India is made by grinding the dried turmeric to a powder. A few drops of lime are then added to this yellow powder, which changes its hue to a bright red. Kumkum is considered to be very auspicious by Indians and thus, used for various purposes on special occasions like wedding and festivals. People, however, use both red and the original yellow powders depending upon what they need the Kumkum for. Kumkum holds a great degree of significance in India, especially for married women.

When an Indian woman wears a little red Kumkum in the parting of her hair just above the forehead, it conveys the meaning that she is married. In this case, the Indian vermillion or kumkum is referred to as Sindoor or Sindur. Whenever a female visits someone's house, it is customary for the elder ladies of that family to offer or apply a little kumkum on her forehead. In south India, whenever married women visit temples they dip their finger in yellow turmeric powder and apply a dot on their necks.


Sindoor is not just used by the womenfolk of India. Even men, boys, girls and little children apply a dot of this powder on their forehead when they visit a temple or attend some religious function. However, for married Indian woman, it's is almost compulsory to apply Kumkum in the parting of their hair everyday. As per Hindu customs, she is supposed to cease wearing Sindur only after the demise of her husband.


In earlier times, women preferred to prepare Kumkum at home. Now, most of them buy the readymade Sindur from the market. Depending on what brand of Kumkum you are buying, the cost of one small box of Sindur varies from Rs. 5 to 20. A traditional component of the sindoor is powdered red lead and other ingredients are alum and turmeric. Another custom followed by married Hindu ladies of the country is to wear a bindi on their forehead. At times women apply a kumkum dot instead of the bindi.

Namaste

Namaste

   

The moment you step into India, in all probability, the first word you will get to hear will be Namaste! Namaste, also said as Namaskar by the natives, is a traditional Indian style of greeting or parting phrase as well as a gesture. Derived from the Sanskrit language, the literal definition/meaning of the word Namaste is "I bow to you". If you want to dig deeper to know what does Namaste mean, you can it break up into two Sanskrit words - Namas (meaning - to bow) and Te (meaning - to you). Thus, its real connotation is 'I bow to you out of respect'. 


Namaste happens to be both a formal and an informal form of greeting in India and you can say this to anyone irrespective of age. Normally when you say Namaskar to anybody, you press both your palms together with all the fingers pointing upwards in front of your chest. At the same time, you also bow your head slightly, looking at the person you are saying Namaste to. Even if you simply perform the Namaste gesture with your hands without actually saying the word, it will mean the same thing. 

Though saying Namaste to others in daily lives is a part of the Indian protocol, yet many believe it also has religious / spiritual connotation. According to this school of thought, when you greet Namaste, you actually seek to recognize a common divinity within the other person. Interestingly, Namaste can be said in different ways, depending crucially on the person you are saying it to. For instance, when you greet your friend or peer, the traditional style Namaste will suffice.


On the other hand, when it's a person greeting Namaste to another person of a higher status, this gesture will get intensified. To indicate genuine and deep respect for the other person, you place the hands in front of the forehead. Whereas, you have to pay reverence to God or a holy person then, this feeling can be transmitted through the Namaste gesture by holding / placing the pressed hands above the head. Some natives prostrate on the ground in this posture to show their deep respect and love to God. 


The symbolism of the two palms touching each other is of great significance. It is the joining together of two extremities - the feet of the Divine, with the head of the devotee. Yet another theory associates the Namaste greeting with a particular mudra or posture in yoga. However, Namaste being a polite gesture of love and respect can be said to anybody. But traditionally, it's a Hindu gesture and people of this community greet each other this way only.

Ancient Indian Literature

Ancient Indian Literature - An Overview

Indian literature is considered one of the oldest in the world. The Ancient Indian Literature dates back to the Vedic Age. The oldest literary work of India is the Rig Veda. It also happens to be the worlds oldest literary work. The scriptures of ancient Indian literature are classified into two categories - The Shruti literature and The Smriti literature. Shruti literature concerns the revealed or the heard� or 'the revealed' whereas the Smriti literature concerns 'the remembered.'

Shruti literature

• The word shruti has been derived from a Sanskrit word shrut which means to hear.


• In the ancient times, the great sages used to do tapasya and sadhana and could hear the divine truths. These divine truths were presented in the Vedas and Upanishads.


• The Vedas and Upanishads are a part of the Shruti literature.


• Shruti literature is inviolable and veritable.
• 
  

Smriti literature

• Based on Shruti literature, the Smriti literature incorporated in its texts the knowledge which was acquired through tradition or experience.


• The Manu-Smriti, shastras and several other smritis are a part of the Smriti literature.


• The Smriti literature mainly contains guidelines for moral obligations, ethics, customs and social codes.


• Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata are a part of the Smriti literature.


• Time and place can influence modifications in the Smriti literature.

History of Indian Literature

• The number of officially recognized languages in India is 22 in number. This huge variety of languages has made a significant contribution in the ancient Indian literature.


• India was one of the first places in the world to start the writing system and this began in around the 2500 BC. This was the Harappan writing. After the invasion of the Aryans around 1500 BC, the system of writing by the Harappans was forgotten and for the next 1000 years no one in India had the knowledge of writing.


• It was only around the 500 BC when people in India took to writing again and this marked one of the important episodes in the history of ancient Indian literature. It is believed that the Persians writing could have had some influence in the Indian writing at that time. However, the Persian script was not used and alphabetic writing was used. This writing was what we know as Sanskrit.


• Around 300 BC Ramayana was composed followed by Mahabharata. A portion of the Mahabharata is Bhagavad Gita.


• It was about the same time traditional stories were collected and written down by people. This collection of stories came to known as Jataka tales which were moral based.

Works on Ancient Indian Literature:-

Some of the notable ancient Indian literary works are:

• Vedas
• Ramayana and Mahabharata
• Vaastu Shastra
• Arthashastra
• Recognition of Shakuntala
• Raamcharitmaanas
• Sangam poetry
• Prabhrita and Chudaman